In the 1990s, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) psychologist Sam Tsemberis introduced an innovative “Housing First” program in several US cities to aid homeless people with chronic mental illness. Over time, the program expanded to include the broader homeless population. The underlying principle of Tsemberis’s approach is that providing stable housing is the first essential step to ending homelessness. Drawing from international research and experience, Brazil’s “Visible Streets Plan” now aims to assist its homeless population with a similar initiative, called “Citizen Housing.” “Cities can now register to get federal government funding for First Housing programs,” says Roberto Rocha Coelho Pires, a researcher at the Institute of Applied Economic Research (IPEA) and an advisor to the Ministry of Human Rights and Citizenship (MDHC).
Launched by the federal government in 2023, the “Visible Streets Plan” outlines a gamut of social welfare measures for the homeless — ranging from health and education to housing and employment — guided by the National Policy for the Homeless. Taniele Cristina Rui, an anthropologist at the University of Campinas (UNICAMP), explains that historically, Brazilian efforts for the homeless have traditionally provided housing as the last step of a lengthy process. Participants are first assisted in securing employment, overcoming substance abuse, and rebuilding familial ties before being offered housing. “However, evidence from diverse countries suggests this process should be reversed; providing secure housing first creates stability, enhancing the effectiveness of psychosocial support, skills training, and educational services,” argues Rui.
Juliana Reimberg, who has a background in law and public administration and is currently pursuing a doctorate at Cardiff Business School in the UK, explains that the private accommodations offered by Housing First programs give individuals greater independence — such as the ability to cook and come and go as they please. “This is in stark contrast to Brazil’s prevailing shelter model,” she notes. Brazilian homeless shelters often accommodate up to 50 individuals per dormitory, impose strict check-in and check-out times, and provide preprepared meals, limiting independence. In addition, few shelters are equipped to accommodate entire families, requiring parents to separate from their children. “Once individuals enter these shelters, they often struggle to leave. My research has uncovered cases of individuals spending as much as a decade in shelters. Clearly, the current model is inadequate,” says Reimberg.
During her research for her master’s degree, defended in 2023 at the University of São Paulo’s Center for Metropolitan Studies (CEM-USP), Reimberg examined the living conditions of women in shelters in São Paulo. Out of a total of 3,600 homeless women, as per the municipal census of 2021, 1,700 were living in shelter facilities that year, according to Reimberg. Her findings revealed that many of these women were referred to shelters after experiencing domestic violence rather than due to homelessness. “Some had never even spent a single night on the streets,” she notes. For mothers living in shelters with their children, finding employment can be challenging as many shelters do not allow unaccompanied children. “To give mothers an opportunity to earn an income, some shelters now permit another woman to care for their children for a few hours,” says Reimberg.
Brianna Soukup / Portland Press Herald via Getty ImagesAn elderly person in an apartment provided by a Housing First program in Portland, USABrianna Soukup / Portland Press Herald via Getty Images
Homeless pregnant women, Rui adds, often lose custody of their children after delivery. “Because the streets are unsuitable for newborns, infants are placed in shelter facilities if there are no family members available for adoption,” she explains. She advocates for developing tailored shelter models for the homeless, accommodating scenarios such as pregnant women residing with their babies for several months postpartum. “These women often lose custody of their children successively, which can have damaging effects on their mental health,” argues Rui, who heads a research group called “Violated Motherhood,” funded by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).
Today, Housing First programs have become a cornerstone of initiatives addressing homelessness in parts of Europe. A 2016 report by a consortium of researchers and policymakers from 13 European nations — including the UK, Spain, and Finland — documented the outcomes of several such initiatives. In Amsterdam, the Netherlands, for instance, 70% of homeless services users in 2013 reported reduced drug consumption, while 89% reported improved quality of life. Similarly, in Lisbon’s Housing First program, 80% of participants cited decreased stress levels during the same period.
Inspired by these successes, São Paulo introduced a transitional housing program in June 2022, offering modular housing units to accommodate homeless people. Maria Caetano, a social worker and coordinator of the municipal Social Development Center, explains that the initiative prioritizes families with children under 6, the elderly, and women fleeing domestic violence.
Eligibility criteria include regaining independence in daily tasks like cooking, and ensuring children are vaccinated and enrolled in school. Participants can reside in these transitional homes for up to two years, with the possibility of extension subject to assessment by program staff. During this period, they attend training programs and may join Programa Operação Trabalho (POT), which offers jobs in administration, agriculture, and street sweeping. The goal is to equip participants with the skills to become fully independent, including financially, upon completing the program.
While Reimberg views the initiative favorably, she offers a caveat: “Unlike Housing First programs, which provide permanent housing, São Paulo’s program imposes a time limit for individuals to vacate the premises. I believe two years is too brief a period for people to rebuild their lives,” she opines.
Projects
1. Lasting effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of vulnerable families in Brazil: Notes on inequality, public policy, and everyday life (nº 22/03051-4); Grant Mechanism Research Grant ‒ Initial Project; Principal Investigator Taniele Cristina Rui (UNICAMP); Investment R$201,592.66.
2. Center for Metropolitan Studies (CEM) (nº 13/07616-7); Grant Mechanism Research, Innovation, and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs); Principal Investigator Eduardo Cesar Leão Marques; Investment R$21,556,283.69.
3. Institutionalized: In the streets, psychiatric hospitals, prisons, and hostels (nº 17/24602-0); Grant Mechanism Regular Research Grant; Principal Investigator Taniele Cristina Rui (UNICAMP); Investment R$5,856.00.
Scientific articles
SEGATTO, C. I. et al. Inequalities and the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil: Analyzing un-coordinated responses in social assistance and education. Policy and Society. Vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 306–20. June 2022.
Documents
NATALINO, M. & CARVALHO, A. A população em situação de rua nos números do Cadastro Único Rio de Janeiro: Ipea, 2024.
NATALINO, M. Estimativa da população em situação de rua no Brasil (2012-2022): Ipea, 2023.
The 2023 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress, The US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2023.
Housing First ‒ Peer review in social protection and social inclusion. Belgium: European Programme for Employment and Social Innovation, 2016.
Book
ARBIA, A. A. et al. (eds.). Atendimento à população em situação de rua: Reflexões e práticas no Brasil e na Europa. Juiz de Fora: Editora UFJF/Selo Serviço Social, 2023.
Book chapters
FREHSE, F. The historicity of the refiguration of spaces under the scrutiny of the pre-Covid São Paulo homeless pedestrians. In: MILLION, A. C. et al. (ed.). Spatial transformations. Oxford: Routledge, 2021.
FREHSE, F. “On the spatialities of the homeless’ street in Covid-19” – São Paulo. In: LEPIK, A. & TALESNIK, D. (eds.). Who’s next? Homelessness, architecture and cities. Munich: Architangle, 2021.
